簡介：ABSTRACTTHEWORLDWIDEWEBHASCHANGEDTHEPERSPECTIVEONTHEROLETHATMAPSCANPLAYTHEIRTRADITIONALFUNCTIONREMAINS,EGTOREPRESENTANABSTRACTIONOFASELECTEDPARTOFREALITYTOOFFERINSIGHTINTOGEOSPATIALPATTERNSANDRELATIONSADDITIONALLYTHEMAPCANBEANIMPORTANTPARTOFASEARCHENGINE,ESPECIALLYINTHECONTEXTOFGEOSPATIALDATAINFRASTRUCTUREMAPSCANALSOFUNCTIONASANINTERFACETOOTHERGEOGRAPHICANDNONGEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONONTHEWEBTHEQUESTION‘WHATARETHEIMPLICATIONSOFTHISEXPANDINGROLEOFMAPSFORAWEBGISENVIRONMENT’ISADDRESSEDINTHISPAPER1INTRODUCTIONMAPSARERECOGNISEDINTHEIRCAPACITYTOOFFERANOVERVIEWOFANDINSIGHTINTOSPATIALPATTERNSANDRELATIONSMAPSCANGUIDEUSFROMATOB,SHOWTHESTRUCTUREOFTHELANDSCAPE,DISPLAYTHECHANGESINPOPULATIONDISTRIBUTIONS,ORSHOWFUTUREURBANPLANSMAPSDOTHISBECAUSETHEYREPRESENTABSTRACTIONSANDSELECTIONSOFREALITYIFWELLDESIGNED,THEMEANINGOFTHEIRSYMBOLOGYWILLGIVETHEUSERALINKTOAPARTOFREALITYGEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMSGISARECHARACTERISEDBYTHEABILITYTOINTEGRATEGEOSPATIALDATAFROMAWIDEVARIETYOFSOURCESTHEFUNCTIONALITYOFSUCHSYSTEMSALLOWSDIFFERENTKINDSOFSPATIALANALYSISOPERATIONSTHENATUREOFTHESEOPERATIONSISOFTENBASEDONAPPLICATIONSMODELS,THECURRENTDISCIPLINARYAPPROACHTOTHEPROBLEMATHANDOBVIOUSLY,MAPSPLAYANIMPORTANTROLEINGISNOTONLYDOTHEYPRESENTTHEFINALRESULTSOFTHESPATIALANALYSISBUTTHEYAREALSOCRITICALDURINGTHEWHOLEITERATIVEPROCESSOFGEOSPATIALDATAHANDLINGTHEPOPULARITYOFGISHASHADAGREATIMPACTONMAPSMANYMAPSHAVEBEENCREATEDANDUSED,BUTDURINGTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEGISERAMAPQUALITYWASNOTALWAYSACCEPTABLETHISWASPARTLYDUETOTHEFACTTHATNOTALLPEOPLEINVOLVEDINGISMAPMAKINGWERESKILLEDINTHISPROCESS,ANDPARTLYDUETOTHELIMITEDRESOLUTIONOFSCREENSANDPLOTTERSTHERISEOFTHEINTERNET,ANDINPARTICULARTHEWORLDWIDEWEB,WASANOTHERSTIMULANTTOMAPMAKINGANDMAPUSEHOWEVER,THEWEBHASALSOJGEOGRAPHSYST2004683–93DOI101007/S1010900401272THEROLEOFTHEMAPINAWEBGISENVIRONMENTMENNOJANKRAAKINTERNATIONALINSTITUTEOFGEOINFORMATIONSCIENCEANDEARTHOBSERVATION,DEPARTMENTOFGEOINFORMATIONPROCESSING,POBOX6,7500AAENSCHEDE,THENETHERLANDSEMAILKRAAKITCNLHAVINGHADINFLUENCEONTHEMAPAREIMAGEANALYSIS,EXPLORATORYDATAANALYSISEDA,ANDOFCOURSEMETHODOLOGICALDEVELOPMENTSINGISANDCARTOGRAPHYNOTTOBEFORGOTTENTHEABOVEDEVELOPMENTSINSCIENTIFICVISUALISATIONSTIMULATEDDIBIASE1990TODEFINEAMODELFORMAPBASEDSCIENTIFICVISUALISATIONITCOVERSBOTHTHECOMMUNICATIONANDTHINKINGFUNCTIONSOFTHEMAPCOMMUNICATIONISDESCRIBEDAS‘‘PUBLICVISUALCOMMUNICATION’’SINCEITCONCERNSMAPSAIMEDATAWIDEAUDIENCETHINKINGISDEFINEDAS‘‘PRIVATEVISUALTHINKING’’BECAUSEITISOFTENANINDIVIDUALPLAYINGWITHTHEGEOSPATIALDATATODETERMINEITSSIGNIFICANCEONAMOREDETAILEDLEVEL,DIFFERENTVISUALISATIONSTAGESCANBERECOGNISED,EACHREQUIRINGADIFFERENTSTRATEGYFROMTHEPERSPECTIVEOFMAPUSETHISRANGESFROMPRESENTATIONTOEXPLORATIONTHEFIRSTFITSINTOTHETRADITIONALREALMOFCARTOGRAPHY,WHERETHECARTOGRAPHERWORKSONKNOWNGEOSPATIALDATAANDCREATESCOMMUNICATIVEMAPSTHESEMAPSAREOFTENCREATEDFORMULTIPLEUSESEXPLORATIONOFTENINVOLVESADISCIPLINEEXPERTCREATINGMAPSWHILEDEALINGWITHUNKNOWNDATATHESEMAPSAREGENERALLYFORASINGLEPURPOSE,EXPEDIENTINTHEEXPERT’SATTEMPTTOSOLVEAPROBLEMWHILEDEALINGWITHTHEDATA,THEEXPERTSHOULDBEABLETORELYONCARTOGRAPHICEXPERTISE,PROVIDEDBYTHESOFTWAREORSOMEOTHERMEANSFROMTHEMAPPERSPECTIVE,ASYNTHESISOFALLTHEABOVETRENDSRESULTSINGEOVISUALIZATIONGEOVISUALIZATIONINTEGRATESAPPROACHESFROMSCIENTIFICVISUALIZATION,TOPROVIDETHEORY,METHODS,ANDTOOLSFORVISUALEXPLORATION,ANALYSIS,SYNTHESIS,ANDPRESENTATIONOFGEOSPATIALDATATHISTRENDHASBEENDESCRIBEDBYMACEACHRENANDKRAAK2001FORTHECOMMISSIONONVISUALISATIONANDVIRTUALENVIRONMENTSOFTHEINTERNATIONALCARTOGRAPHICASSOCIATIONMOREINFORMATIONCANBEFOUNDONTHECOMMISSION’SWEBSITEURL1ORINTHESPECIALISSUEOFCARTOGRAPHICANDGEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONSCIENCES2001VOL28,NO1INTHISCONTEXT,ITISOBVIOUSTHATCARTOGRAPHICDESIGNANDRESEARCHPAYATTENTIONTOHUMANCOMPUTERINTERACTION–THEINTERFACES,ANDREVIVETHEATTENTIONFORTHEUSABILITYOFTHEIRPRODUCTSADDITIONALLY,ONEHASTOWORKONREPRESENTATIONISSUESANDTHEINTEGRATIONOFGEOCOMPUTINGINTHEVISUALIZATIONPROCESSASSUCHMAPSANDGRAPHICSAREUSEDTOEXPLOREGEOSPATIALDATA,THEEXPLORATIONPROCESSCANGENERATEHYPOTHESES,DEVELOPPROBLEMSOLUTIONS,ANDULTIMATELYCONSTRUCTKNOWLEDGEINAGEOVISUALIZATIONENVIRONMENTMAPSAREUSEDTOSTIMULATEVISUALTHINKINGABOUTGEOSPATIALPATTERNS,RELATIONSHIPS,ANDTRENDSONEIMPORTANTAPPROACHHEREISTOVIEWGEOSPATIALDATASETSINANUMBEROFALTERNATIVEWAYS,EG,USINGMULTIPLEREPRESENTATIONSWITHOUTCONSTRAINTSSETBYTRADITIONALTECHNIQUESORRULESTHISSHOULDAVOIDTHETRAPDESCRIBEDBYFINKEETAL1992WHOCLAIMTHAT‘‘MOSTRESEARCHERSTENDTORELYONWELLWORNPROCEDURESANDPARADIGMS’’WHILETHEYSHOULDREALIZETHAT‘‘CREATIVEDISCOVERIES,INBOTHARTANDSCIENCE,OFTENOCCURINUNUSUALSITUATIONS,WHEREONEISFORCEDTOTHINKUNCONVENTIONALLY’’NEW,FRESH,CREATIVEGRAPHICSMIGHTALSOOFFERDIFFERENTINSIGHTSANDWOULDPROBABLYHAVEMOREIMPACTTHANTRADITIONALMAPPINGMETHODSTHESEARGUMENTSAREVALIDINAWEBGISENVIRONMENTASWELL,BUTDOREQUIRESPECIFICINTERACTIVEFUNCTIONALITYTHATISNOTALWAYSOFFEREDTHEROLEOFTHEMAPINAWEBGISENVIRONMENT85

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簡介：ENHANCINGTHECULTURALTOURISMEXPERIENCETHECASEOFHISTORICALOLDJEDDAHGHADEERALAWI,HATOONJAMJOUMCOMFORTANDSAFETYCULTURALVALUESANDENTERTAINMENTEXPERIENCESAFIELDSTUDYANDASTRUCTUREDSURVEYARECONDUCTEDINORDERTOANALYZETHEQUALITYOFTHETOURISTS’EXPERIENCETHERESEARCH,BYUTILIZINGTHEINFORMATIONGATHEREDINTHISSURVEY,CONCLUDESWITHCONSIDERATIONSTOBEINCORPORATEDINTOTHETOURISMPLANOFTHEOLDCITYTHEOUTCOMEOFTHISRESEARCHSHALLCONTRIBUTETOTHESAUDI2030VISIONOFENABLINGANDENHANCINGTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTOURISMSECTORANDPROMOTINGTHEISLAMIC,ARABANDNATIONALHERITAGEOFTHEKINGDOMKEYWORDSURBANHERITAGE,CULTURALTOURISM,TOURISTEXPERIENCE,OLDJEDDAH1INTRODUCTIONCULTURALANDHERITAGEBECAMEANESSENTIALELEMENTOFTHETOURISMINDUSTRYCULTURALTOURISMISCONSIDEREDASONEOFTHEFASTESTGROWINGSEGMENTSOFGLOBALTOURISMHOWEVER,CULTURALTOURISMMARKETISINCREASINGLYCOMPETITIVE,ANDCULTURALATTRACTIONSMUSTFIGHTFORASHAREWITHINTHISMARKET1MANYCITIESCOMPETEINPRODUCINGANDPROMOTINGTHEMSELVESFORCULTURALANDHERITAGETOURISMTHUS,THENEEDFOREFFECTIVEHERITAGETOURISMIMPLEMENTATIONPLANINSAUDIARABIAISESSENTIALALBALADISTHEOLDHISTORICCENTEROFTHECITYOFJEDDAHIN2014,ITWASINSCRIBEDINTHEUNESCOWORLDHERITAGELIST2THISINTERNATIONALRECOGNITIONHASSTRENGTHENEDITSAPPEALASAHERITAGETOURISMDESTINATIONTOBEABLETOCOMPETE,THETOURISMPLANOFOLDJEDDAHMUSTIMPLEMENTPRINCIPLESTOENHANCETHETOURISTS’/VISITORS’EXPERIENCEQUALITY,WHICHISTHEMAINFACTOROFSUCCESSFULCULTURALTOURISMMANYTYPESOFRESEARCHINTENDEDTODEVELOPHERITAGETOURISMPLANSFROMADECISIONMAKER’SPERSPECTIVE,BUTFEWSTUDIESHAVEEXPLOREDHERITAGERESOURCESFROMTOURISTS’PERSPECTIVEPROVIDINGAPLEASINGTOURISTEXPERIENCEISCRUCIALFORHERITAGELONGTERMSUCCESSANDSUSTAINABILITY2OBJECTIVESANDMETHODOLOGYTHEMAINGOALOFTHISSTUDYISTOSET,INVESTIGATE,ANDIDENTIFYAPPLICABLETOOLSANDSTRATEGIESTHATCOULDPROVIDEAPLEASINGEXPERIENCEFORTOURISTSINOLDJEDDAHTHEOUTCOMESHOULDCONTRIBUTETOTHESAUDI2030VISIONBYENABLINGANDENHANCINGTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTOURISMSECTORINKSATOCOMPETEINTERNATIONALLYASWELLASBYPROMOTINGTHEISLAMIC,ARABANDNATIONALHERITAGEOFTHEKINGDOMTOACHIEVETHISGOAL,THEOBJECTIVESOFTHISSTUDYCANBESUMMARIZEDASFOLLOWFIRST,TOIDENTIFYTHEMAJORVARIOUSFACTORSAFFECTINGTHETOURISTS’EXPERIENCESECOND,TOEVALUATETOURIST’/VISITORS’EXPERIENCEANDSATISFACTIONOFALBALADHERITAGESITECONSIDERINGTHEDIFFERENTIDENTIFIEDFACTORSTHIRD,TOCONCLUDESUSTAINABLEPRINCIPLESTHATPROMOTETHECITYHERITAGE,FOCUSINGONTOURISTS’/VISITORS’EXPERIENCEQUALITYTHESEPRINCIPLESARETOBEINCORPORATEDINTOTHETOURISMPLANOFSAUDIARABIANHERITAGEINORDERTOACHIEVETHEOUTLINEDWWWWITPRESSCOM,ISSN17433509ONLINEWITTRANSACTIONSONTHEBUILTENVIRONMENT,VOL177,?2018WITPRESSISLAMICHERITAGEARCHITECTUREANDARTII39DOI102495/IHA180041ALLOWINGPEOPLETOWORKTOGETHERTOENHANCEECONOMICANDCULTURALDEVELOPMENTTHROUGHDISTINCTCOMMUNITYOPPORTUNITIESSTUDIESSHOWTHATTRAVELERSAREMOREOPTTOVISITPLACESWITHASTRONGCOMMUNITYIDENTITY4FACTORSAFFECTINGTOURISMEXPERIENCEVISITORS’EXPERIENCEPLAYSACRITICALROLEINTHECONCEPTUALIZATIONOFHERITAGETOURISMINHISSTUDY8,ARGUESTHATHERITAGETOURISMINDUSTRYHADSHIFTEDFROMAPRODUCTFOCUSEDORIENTATIONTOWARDACUSTOMERFOCUSEDORIENTATIONVISITORSARECONSIDEREDASTHECUSTOMERSANDTHEIRNEEDSMUSTBERESPONDEDACCORDINGLYTOMAXIMIZESATISFACTIONANDLOYALTYTHEMARKETINGCONCEPTEMPHASIZESONSATISFYINGCUSTOMERS’NEEDS,THROUGHTHEINTEGRATEDEFFORTSOFALLFUNCTIONALELEMENTSTOENHANCETHEORGANIZATION’SPERFORMANCE9THISAPPROACHISONEOFTHEMOSTEFFECTIVEMETHODSTHATCANEFFECTIVELYIMPACTTHEPERFORMANCEOFCULTURALHERITAGEDESTINATIONSSUCHOLDJEDDAHMCKERCHERANDWONG2004INDICATETHATMOSTHERITAGEMANAGEMENTFOCUSESONDEVELOPINGTHEPHYSICALFEATURESOFTHEHERITAGELOCATIONWITHOUTTAKINGINTOCONSIDERATIONTHEVISITOREXPERIENCE10WEILERANDYU2008ARGUETHATTHEVISITOREXPERIENCEISEXPECTEDTOBERICHERANDMOREMEMORABLEWHENATTENTIONISNOTLIMITEDTOPHYSICALACCESSBUTALSOTHEOPPORTUNITIESTOUNDERSTAND,APPRECIATE,ANDINTERACT11SCHOLARSINTHISFIELDHAVEIDENTIFIEDMANYCRITICALHERITAGEATTRIBUTESTOPROMOTESATISFYINGTOURISTEXPERIENCEPIZAMETAL1978ISONEOFTHEPIONEERRESEARCHERSWHOPROPOSEDDIMENSIONSOFTOURISTSATISFACTION12HEARGUESTHATEVALUATIONSHOULDBEBASEDONIDENTIFYINGANDMEASURINGTHEDIMENSIONSOFDESTINATIONPERFORMANCE13THEPERCEPTIONOFEACHOFTHEATTRIBUTESCOULDLEADTOSATISFACTIONORDISSATISFACTIONWITHTHEOVERALLVISITINGEXPERIENCE41TOURISTSERVICESANDFACILITIESTOURISMISESSENTIALLYASERVICEINDUSTRYANDITISHIGHLYSERVICEDRIVENTOURISMPROVIDESPRODUCTSANDSERVICESFORPEOPLEPARTICIPATINGINACTIVITIESATPLACESOTHERTHANTHEIRRESIDENCE9SERVICEISANACTORPERFORMANCETHATONEPARTYCANOFFERTOANOTHERTHATISESSENTIALLYINTANGIBLEANDMAYNOTRESULTINOWNERSHIPOFAPHYSICALPRODUCT14THESERVICEASPECTSOFHERITAGETOURISMSHOULDCOVERTHEWHOLEVISITOR’SEXPERIENCEPROVIDINGMEMORABLEEXPERIENCEANDMAXIMIZINGCUSTOMERSATISFACTIONSHOULDBEATEVERYSTAGEINTHETOURISTVALUECHAIN15FORTHETOURISTEXPERIENCETOBEPLEASANTANDCOMFORTABLE,TWOCRITERIASHOULDBETAKENINTOACCOUNTFIRSTISTHEAVAILABILITYOFBASICFACILITIESNEEDEDSUCHASINFORMATIONFACILITIES,RESTROOMS,SIGNAGE,PARKINGAREASANDROUTESSECONDISMAINTENANCEANDPERFECTSTATEOFTHESEFACILITIESWELCOME,ANDINFORMATIONFACILITIESARETHEBASICELEMENTSTOPROVIDECONFIDENCETOTHEVISITORSASTHEYRECEIVEINFORMATIONTOPREVENTTHEMFROMBEINGLOST16WALKWAYSANDCOHERENTROUTSARE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簡介：REGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEKRISTIANBEHRENSA,JACQUESFRAN?OISTHISSEA,B,C,?ACORE,UNIVERSITéCATHOLIQUEDELOUVAIN,BELGIUMBCERAS,ECOLENATIONALEDESPONTSETCHAUSSéES,FRANCECCEPR,UNITEDKINGDOMRECEIVED5AUGUST2006ACCEPTED19OCTOBER2006AVAILABLEONLINE12APRIL2007ABSTRACTWESHOWTHATTHECONCEPTSANDTOOLSDEVELOPEDINNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYMAYBEUSEDTOREVISITSEVERALPROBLEMSINREGIONALECONOMICSINPARTICULAR,WEWANTTOSTRESSTHEFOLLOWINGTWOPOINTSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMWECONCLUDEBYDISCUSSINGAFEWOPENPROBLEMSTHATSHOULDBEEXPLOREDINMOREDETAILFORREGIONALECONOMICSTOBECOMEARICHERBODYOFKNOWLEDGE?2007ELSEVIERBVALLRIGHTSRESERVEDJELCLASSIFICATIONR1KEYWORDSREGIONSREGIONALECONOMICSNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHY1INTRODUCTIONTHISJOURNALHASBEENLAUNCHEDIN1972UNDERTHETITLEREGIONALANDURBANECONOMICS,WHICHISALMOSTTHENAMEOFTHEJELCLASSIFICATIONENTRYRTHEFIRSTPOINTWEWISHTOMAKEISTHAT,BYTHETIMETHISJOURNALWASLAUNCHED,URBANECONOMICSWASALREADYAWELLESTABLISHEDFIELDDRAWINGONNEWCONCEPTSANDTOOLSBYCONTRAST,THESCIENTIFICSTATUSOFREGIONALECONOMICSWASLESSCLEARINREGIONALSCIENCEANDURBANECONOMICS372007457–465WWWELSEVIERCOM/LOCATE/REGECWETHANKAREFEREE,RICHARDARNOTT,WILFRIEDKOCHANDGIORDANOMIONFORHELPFULCOMMENTSANDSUGGESTIONSKRISTIANBEHRENSGRATEFULLYACKNOWLEDGESFINANCIALSUPPORTFROMTHEEUROPEANCOMMISSIONUNDERTHEMARIECURIEFELLOWSHIPMEIFCT2005024266?CORRESPONDINGAUTHORCERAS,ECOLENATIONALEDESPONTSETCHAUSSéES,FRANCEEMAILADDRESSESBEHRENSCOREUCLACBEKBEHRENS,THISSECOREUCLACBEJFTHISSE01660462/SEEFRONTMATTER?2007ELSEVIERBVALLRIGHTSRESERVEDDOI101016/JREGSCIURBECO200610001MIND,AWELLKNOWNRESULTINSETTHEORYISTHATTHEREISAONETOONECORRESPONDENCEBETWEENTHEFAMILYOFPARTITIONSINASETANDTHEFAMILYOFEQUIVALENCERELATIONSOFTHESAMESETHALMOS,1965RECALLTHATANEQUIVALENCERELATIONINASETISAREFLEXIVE,SYMMETRICANDTRANSITIVERELATIONINTUITIVELY,ONEMAYTHINKOFANEQUIVALENCERELATIONASAGENERALIZATIONOFTHECONCEPTOFEQUALITYTOTHATOFSIMILARITYIANOBJECTISALWAYSSIMILARTOITSELFREFLEXIVITYIIIFONEOBJECTISSIMILARTOANOTHER,THELATTERISSIMILARTOTHEFORMERSYMMETRYANDIIITWOOBJECTSSIMILARTOATHIRDONEARETHEMSELVESSIMILARTRANSITIVITYACCORDINGLY,USINGAPARTICULARREGIONALSYSTEMAMOUNTSTOWORKINGWITHASPECIALEQUIVALENCERELATIONDEFINEDONTHESPACEOFREFERENCETHISRESULTHASTWOIMPORTANTIMPLICATIONSIANYPLACEBELONGSTOASINGLEREGIONANDIITWOPLACESBELONGINGTOTHESAMEREGIONARECONSIDEREDASBEINGIDENTICALFROMTHESTANDPOINTOFTHEEQUIVALENCERELATION,WHEREASTWOPLACESBELONGINGTOTWODISTINCTREGIONSARENOTITISNOWEASYTOUNDERSTANDWHYTHEREISNOGENERALAGREEMENTONWHATAREGIONSHOULDBETHENUMBEROFEQUIVALENCERELATIONSTHATCANBEDEFINEDINASPACEIS“HUGE”THUS,DEPENDINGONTHEPOINTOFVIEWSELECTEDBYTHEANALYST,THEREGIONALSYSTEM,WHENCETHESHAPEANDNUMBEROFREGIONS,MAYVARYCONSEQUENTLY,AGIVENAREACANNOTBECONSIDEREDASAREGIONPERSEWHETHERORNOTITISPARTOFAREGIONALSYSTEMULTIMATELYDEPENDSONTHEEQUIVALENCERELATIONTHATISBEINGUSEDTHISDIFFICULTYSHOULDNOTCOMEASASURPRISEASDEFININGAREGIONALSYSTEMBEARSSOMERESEMBLANCEWITHTHEPROBLEMOFAGGREGATIONINECONOMICTHEORYINTHISRESPECT,ITISWELLKNOWNHOWPOORLYREPRESENTATIVETHESOCALLED“REPRESENTATIVECONSUMER”MAYBEKIRMAN,1992LIKEWISE,THEWORD“INDUSTRY”ISSTILLINSEARCHOFAWELLDEFINEDTHEORETICALMEANINGTRIFFIN,1940GROUPINGLOCATIONSWITHINTHESAMESPATIALENTITY,CALLEDAREGION,GIVESRISETOSIMILARDIFFICULTIESITIS,THEREFORE,PROBABLYHOPELESSTOGIVEACLEARANDPRECISEANSWERTOOURFIRSTQUESTION,WHICHISESSENTIALLYANEMPIRICALONEWHENWETALKABOUTAREGION,WEMUSTBEHAPPYWITHTHESAMETHEORETICALVAGUENESSTHATWEENCOUNTERWHENUSINGTHECONCEPTOFINDUSTRYNOTETHATBOTHINVOLVESOME“INTERMEDIATE”LEVELOFAGGREGATIONBETWEENTHEMACROANDTHEMICROITSHOULDBECLEARFROMTHEFOREGOINGDISCUSSIONTHATTHEMAINCHALLENGEINDEFININGAREGIONALSYSTEMLIESMOREINTHEEMPIRICALAPPLICATIONONEHASINMINDFROMAPURELYEMPIRICALPOINTOFVIEW,THECONCEPTOFREGIONONERETAINSISOFTENINTRINSICALLYLINKEDTOTHEAVAILABILITYOFDATAHENCE,THEQUESTIONOFTHESPATIALSCALEOFANALYSIS,THOUGHALREADYPROBLEMATICINTHEORY,BECOMESEVENMOREDRAMATICINAPPLIEDRESEARCHHOWEVER,SUCHADIFFICULTYDOESNOTDISPENSETHEANALYSTFROMSEEKINGMEANINGFULEMPIRICALSOLUTIONSSEE,EGMAGRINI,2004MCMILLENANDSMITH,2003ONTHEONEHAND,THEQUESTIONOFTHESIZEOFREGIONSNOLONGERMATTERSBECAUSEITISOFTENDICTATEDBYADMINISTRATIVECLASSIFICATIONSEG,THENUTSREGIONALCLASSIFICATIONOFTHEEUONTHEOTHERHAND,ONEISTEMPTEDTOTWISTTHEORYSOTHATITFITSINTOTHEAVAILABLESTATISTICALCLASSIFICATIONSONEADDITIONALPROBLEMISTHAT,DUETOTHENATUREOFTHEDATAAVAILABLE,SPACEMUSTOFTENBEREPRESENTEDBYADISCRETESETOFPOINTSYET,WHENTHEREARETOOMANYPOINTS,AGGREGATIONBECOMESNECESSARYANDGIVESRISETOANOTHERPROBLEM,KNOWNASTHEMAUPMOVABLEAREALUNITPROBLEM3SOMENEWTECHNIQUESSHOULDALLEVIATETHEMAUPPROBLEMINPARTICULAR,THEUSEOFGEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMSANDTHEINCREASINGAVAILABILITYOFMICROSPATIALDATASHOULDALLOWFORLESSRELIANCEONARBITRARILYDETERMINEDREGIONALBOUNDARIES43ECONOMISTSANDGEOGRAPHERSDONOTSEEMTOBEAWARETHATMATHEMATICIANSHAVEEXTENSIVELYSTUDIEDTHEPOSSIBLEERRORSTHATMAYEMERGEFROMTHEAGGREGATIONOFDATAINTHISPERSPECTIVE,FRANCISETAL2007CONSIDERANDCOMPAREVARIOUSAGGREGATIONERRORMEASURES,IDENTIFYSOMEEFFECTIVEANDSOMEINEFFECTIVEAGGREGATIONERRORM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簡介：3700英文單詞，英文單詞，2萬英文字符，中文萬英文字符，中文6400字文獻(xiàn)出處文獻(xiàn)出處BEHRENSK,THISSEJFREGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEJREGIONALSCIENCEANDURBANECONOMICS,2007,374457465REGIONALECONOMICSANEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYPERSPECTIVEKRISTIANBEHRENS,JACQUESFRAN?OISTHISSEABSTRACTWESHOWTHATTHECONCEPTSANDTOOLSDEVELOPEDINNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYMAYBEUSEDTOREVISITSEVERALPROBLEMSINREGIONALECONOMICSINPARTICULAR,WEWANTTOSTRESSTHEFOLLOWINGTWOPOINTSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMWECONCLUDEBYDISCUSSINGAFEWOPENPROBLEMSTHATSHOULDBEEXPLOREDINMOREDETAILFORREGIONALECONOMICSTOBECOMEARICHERBODYOFKNOWLEDGEKEYWORDSREGIONSREGIONALECONOMICSNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHY1INTRODUCTIONTHISJOURNALHASBEENLAUNCHEDIN1972UNDERTHETITLEREGIONALANDURBANECONOMICS,WHICHISALMOSTTHENAMEOFTHEJELCLASSIFICATIONENTRYRTHEFIRSTPOINTWEWISHTOMAKEISTHAT,BYTHETIMETHISJOURNALWASLAUNCHED,URBANECONOMICSWASALREADYAWELLESTABLISHEDFIELDDRAWINGONNEWCONCEPTSANDTOOLSBYCONTRAST,THESCIENTIFICSTATUSOFREGIONALECONOMICSWASLESSCLEARINTHATREGIONALCONCEPTS,MODELSANDTECHNIQUESWERETOOOFTENAMEREEXTENSIONOFTHOSEUSEDATTHENATIONALLEVEL,WITHANADDITIONALINDEXIDENTIFYINGTHEDIFFERENTREGIONSSEE,EG,INTERREGIONALINPUT–OUTPUTMATRICESORTHEHARROD–DOMARMODELOFREGIONALGROWTH1THESAMUELSONIANEMPHASISPUTONTRADETHEORYALSOACTEDASANIMPEDIMENTTOTHEFURTHERDEVELOPMENTOFREGIONALECONOMICS,THETRADEOFGOODSBEINGVIEWEDASASUBSTITUTETOTHEMOBILITYOFFACTORSTODAY,THANKSTOTHESURGEOFNEWECONOMICGEOGRAPHYINSHORT,NEG,ITISTIMETORETHINKREGIONALECONOMICSTHISISWHATWEWISHTODOINTHISNOTEITISWORTHSTRESSINGFROMTHEOUTSETTHAT,INORDERTOTALKEVENHALFWAYSENSIBLYABOUTREGIONALECONOMICS,ITISNECESSARYTOTACKLETHEFOLLOWINGTWOQUESTIONSIWHATDOWEMEANBYAREGIONANDIIWHATKINDOFINTERACTIONSBETWEENREGIONSDOWEWANTTOSTUDYANDHOWTOMODELTHEMREGARDINGTHEFIRSTQUESTION,WEFINDITCRUCIALTODEVELOPABETTERUNDERSTANDINGOFHOWTHESPATIALSCALEOFTHEANALYSISMATTERSFORTHEECONOMICRESULTSTOOOFTEN,ECONOMISTSUSEINTERCHANGEABLYDIFFERENT,YETEQUALLYUNCLEAR,WORDSSUCHASLOCATIONS,REGIONSORPLACESWITHOUTBEINGAWARETHATTHEYOFTENCORRESPONDTODIFFERENTSPATIALUNITSINDOINGSO,THEYRUNTHERISKOFDRAWINGIMPLICATIONSTHATAREVALIDATACERTAINLEVELOFSPATIALAGGREGATIONBUTNOTATANOTHER2FURTHERMORE,USINGVAGUEDEFINITIONSOFTHESPATIALUNITOFANALYSISREDUCESTHESCIENTIFICCONTENTSOFTHETHEORYINTHEPOPPERIANSENSE,ASTHEEMPIRICALRESULTSCANALWAYSBECONTESTEDINLIGHTOFTHETHEORYONTHESOLEBASISTHATVARIABLESARENOTMEASUREDATTHEAPPROPRIATESPATIALSCALEASTOTHESECONDQUESTION,REGARDLESSOFWHATISMEANTBYAREGION,THECONCEPTISUSEFULIFANDONLYIFAREGIONISPARTOFABROADERNETWORKTHROUGHWHICHVARIOUSTYPESOFINTERACTIONSOCCURWITHOUTTAKINGTHISASPECTINTOACCOUNT,ONEMAYWONDERWHATTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENREGIONALECONOMICSANDTHEMACROECONOMICSOFACLOSEDECONOMYWOULDBEWHENTHEREISASINGLEREGION,THEECONOMYISASPATIALANDTHEREISNOTHINGINTERESTINGTOBESAIDINTERMSOFSPATIALANALYSISHENCE,ANYMEANINGFULDISCUSSIONOFREGIONALISSUESREQUIRESATLEASTTWOREGIONSINWHICHECONOMICDECISIONSAREMADEFURTHERMORE,IFWEDONOTWANTTHEANALYSISTOBECONFINEDTOTRADETHEORY,WEMUSTALSOACCOUNTEXPLICITLYFORTHEMOBILITYOFAGENTS–FIRMSAND/ORCONSUMERS–ASEVENMOREDRAMATICINAPPLIEDRESEARCHHOWEVER,SUCHADIFFICULTYDOESNOTDISPENSETHEANALYSTFROMSEEKINGMEANINGFULEMPIRICALSOLUTIONSSEE,EGMAGRINI,2004MCMILLENANDSMITH,2003ONTHEONEHAND,THEQUESTIONOFTHESIZEOFREGIONSNOLONGERMATTERSBECAUSEITISOFTENDICTATEDBYADMINISTRATIVECLASSIFICATIONSEG,THENUTSREGIONALCLASSIFICATIONOFTHEEUONTHEOTHERHAND,ONEISTEMPTEDTOTWISTTHEORYSOTHATITFITSINTOTHEAVAILABLESTATISTICALCLASSIFICATIONSONEADDITIONALPROBLEMISTHAT,DUETOTHENATUREOFTHEDATAAVAILABLE,SPACEMUSTOFTENBEREPRESENTEDBYADISCRETESETOFPOINTSYET,WHENTHEREARETOOMANYPOINTS,AGGREGATIONBECOMESNECESSARYANDGIVESRISETOANOTHERPROBLEM,KNOWNASTHEMAUPMOVABLEAREALUNITPROBLEM3SOMENEWTECHNIQUESSHOULDALLEVIATETHEMAUPPROBLEMINPARTICULAR,THEUSEOFGEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMSANDTHEINCREASINGAVAILABILITYOFMICROSPATIALDATASHOULDALLOWFORLESSRELIANCEONARBITRARILYDETERMINEDREGIONALBOUNDARIES3THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENREGIONALECONOMICSANDNEGTHEIDEAOFSPATIALINTERACTIONISCENTRALTOREGIONALECONOMICSBROADLYDEFINED,SPATIALINTERACTIONREFERSTOAWIDEARRAYOFFLOWSSUBJECTTOVARIOUSTYPESOFSPATIALFRICTIONS,SUCHASTRADEDGOODS,MIGRATIONS,CAPITALMOVEMENTS,INTERREGIONALGRANTS,REMITTANCES,ANDTHEINTERREGIONALTRANSMISSIONOFKNOWLEDGEANDBUSINESSCYCLEEFFECTSSOFAR,THEBULKOFNEGHASBEENRESTRICTEDTOTHEMOVEMENTSOFGOODSANDOFSOMEAGENTSONLYASARGUEDINTHEFOREGOINGSECTION,DEFININGCLEARLYANDDELINEATINGPRECISELYAREGIONAPPEARSTOBEADIFFICULT,NOTTOSAYIMPOSSIBLE,TASKKEEPINGTHISINMIND,WEASSUMEFROMNOWONTHATREGIONSMAYBEVIEWEDASUNITSWHEREECONOMICACTIVITYTAKESPLACEINLIGHTOFTHISVAGUEDEFINITION,ITBECOMESCRUCIALFORTHEANALYSISTOACCOUNTFORTHEFACTTHATWHERETHINGSHAPPENISENDOGENOUSLYDETERMINEDINAREGIONALSYSTEMINTHISRESPECT,TRADITIONALREGIONALECONOMICSOFTENFAILSTOGRASPSUCHANISSUEBYTAKINGTHELOCATIONOFPRODUCTIONFACTORSASGIVEN,VERYMUCHASINTRADETHEORYHOWCANORSHOULDAREGIONALSYSTEMBEFORMALLYREPRESENTEDISSTILLAMATTEROFDEBATEFIRSTLY,ONEMAYCONSIDERTHATTHEREISADISCRETESETOFREGIONSALTERNATIVELY,ONEMAYASSUMETHATTHEREISACONTINUUMOFREGIONSALTHOUGHTHESE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簡介：THEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSKARLGEORGH?YERTECHNOLOGY,DESIGNRECEIVEDINREVISEDFORM1NOVEMBER2007ACCEPTED25NOVEMBER2007ABSTRACTTHEARTICLEDESCRIBESANDPRESENTSACRITICALANALYSISOFTHELONGHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSANDPROPULSIONTECHNOLOGIES,PARTICULARLYINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONSCASESAREELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSTHETERM‘‘CRITICALANALYSIS’’REFERSTOTHEANALYSISOFTHEVARIOUSALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIESINRELATIONTOTHEIRSOCIETALCONTEXTSINPARTICULAR,THESEARETHEVARYINGCONTEXTSOFENERGYSECURITY,ENERGYPOLICY,ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS,SUSTAINABILITY,ANDALSOTHELATERMOREEXPLICITCLIMATECHANGECONTEXTTHISAPPROACHGIVESSOMEKNOWLEDGEWITHRELEVANCETOTHECURRENTDISCUSSIONSONIMPLEMENTATIONISSUESTHEWORKISFIRSTOFALLFOUNDEDONTHEKNOWLEDGEFIELDOF‘‘SOCIALSTUDIESOFTECHNOLOGICALSYSTEMS’’?2007ELSEVIERLTDALLRIGHTSRESERVEDKEYWORDSALTERNATIVEFUELSHISTORYELECTRICCARSHYBRIDCARS1ELECTRICCARSDTHEEARLYINNOVATORSTHEHISTORYOFELECTRICCARSISCLOSELYRELATEDTOTHEHISTORYOFBATTERIESWAKEFIELD,1994SPERLING,1995WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THENAMESOFALLTHEEARLYINNOVATORSARESTILLUSEDTODAYIN1800,THEITALIANALESSANDROVOLTADEMONSTRATEDTHATELECTRICENERGYCOULDBESTOREDCHEMICALLYHEHIMSELFWASINSPIREDBYSOMEEARLIEREXPERIMENTSMADEBYHISCOUNTRYMANLUIGIGALVANIGALVANIWASAPROFESSORINMEDICINE,WHOCARRIEDOUTSOMERATHERCRUELEXPERIMENTSINWHICHHEOBSERVEDTHETWITCHINGOFAFROG’SLEGWHENSUBJECTINGITTOWHATWOULDLATERBEKNOWNASELECTRICCURRENTIN1821,THEBRITONMICHAELFARRADAYDEMONSTRATEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFTHEELECTRICMOTORDORGENERATORDWHILEAPPLYINGVOLTA’SCHEMICALPILEASACOMPONENTOFHISEXPERIMENTSLATER,IN1831,FARRADAYSHOWEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTIONWITHTHECLOSERELATIONBETWEENELECTRICCURRENTSANDMAGNETISM,THEREBYLAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORTHEELECTRICMOTORSANDGENERATORSEXPLICITLYREQUIREDFORELECTRICCARSTHEFIRSTEXPERIMENTALLIGHTWEIGHTELECTRICVEHICLESTHUSAPPEAREDBOTHINTHEUSA,UKANDTHENETHERLANDSINTHEMID1830SEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTSINELECTROCHEMISTRYTOOKPLACEINTHESEEARLYYEARSIN1859,THEBELGIANGASTONPLANTE′MADEAPATHBREAKINGDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEFIRSTLEADACIDBATTERYCELLTHISIMPLIEDTHEINVENTIONOFTHELEADACIDBATTERYSTILLUSEDASASTARTERBATTERYINALLINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINEICECARSANDALSOASAPOWERBATTERYINMOSTELECTRICCARSOTHERCHEMICALCELLBATTERIESWEREFURTHERDEVELOPEDINTHESEYEARS,FORINSTANCETHEIRONEZINCBATTERYANDONLYAFEWYEARSLATER,IN1861,ANOTHERITALIAN,ANTONIOPACINOTTI,INVENTEDTHE‘‘RING’’DIRECTCURRENTMOTORTHEFIRSTELECTRICVEHICLEDATRICYCLEDAPPLYINGTHEPLANTE′LEADBATTERYASAPOWERSOURCEWASDEMONSTRATEDINFRANCEBYAMRTROUVE′IN1881INTHESEINETHESAMEYEAR,HEACTUALLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTELECTRICBOATWITHASIMILARPOWERSOURCEDURINGTHESEYEARS,THEEARLY1880S,OTHERSIMILARELECTRICTRICYCLESWITHLEADBATTERIESWEREALSODEMONSTRATEDINTHEUSAANDUKINTHISCONTEXT,ITISWORTHREMEMBERINGTHATTHEGERMANBENZDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTICEVEHICLEIN1885LATERONTHOMASEDISONJOINEDFORCES,ASHESAWGREATOPPORTUNITIESFORELECTRICCARSHEMADESUBSTANTIALEFFORTSTODEVELOPMOREEFFICIENTBATTERIESIN1901,HECAMEUPWITHTHENICKELEIRONBATTERY,WHICHWASVERYMUCHINFOCUSWHENTELT4722453051FAXT4722453005EMAILADDRESSKARLGEORGHOYERHIONO09571787/SEEFRONTMATTER?2007ELSEVIERLTDALLRIGHTSRESERVEDDOI101016/JJUP200711001AVAILABLEONLINEATWWWSCIENCEDIRECTCOMUTILITIESPOLICY16200863E71WWWELSEVIERCOM/LOCATE/JUP3WARTIMECONDITIONSATTHISTIME,HOWEVER,THEELECTRICVEHICLESSTILLCONSTITUTEDATHRIVINGINDUSTRYTHEWARINEUROPEONLYINCREASEDTHEPRODUCTIONANDDEVELOPMENTPOTENTIALSINTHEUSAASAMAJORWORLDEXPORTER,ANDINENGLAND,GERMANYANDFRANCEDUETOTHEFACTTHATMOSTGASOLINEVEHICLESWEREREQUISITIONEDTHEWAREFFORTWHOLEMUNICIPALFLEETSOFELECTRICVEHICLESWEREUSEDFORSTREETCLEANINGANDGARBAGECOLLECTION,ANDMANYMERCHANTSHADTHEIROWNPRIVATEFLEETSOFELECTRICVANSFORRETAILANDGOODSDELIVERIESENGLANDFORINSTANCEHADMORETHAN1000ELECTRICTRUCKSINTHESEYEARSTHEINFRASTRUCTUREWASALSODEVELOPEDBIRMINGHAMDISTRICTISKNOWNTOHAVEHADSEVENCHARGINGSTATIONSONLYINTHECITYAREA,ANDMORETHANTWENTYINTHESURROUNDINGDISTRICTBOTHINTHEUSAANDEUROPEINTHISPERIOD,LARGEEFFORTSWEREPUTINTOTHEENHANCEMENTOFRECHARGINGINFRASTRUCTURESANDPOTENTIALSTWOCONDITIONSWERECRUCIALTOTHISWARPEAKINPRODUCTIONANDUSEFIRSTLY,THEGASOLINESHORTAGEANDTHEREQUISITIONINGOFICEVEHICLESTOTAKEPARTINTHEWAREFFORTSECONDLY,ANEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTOFNEWELECTRICPOWERSTATIONSTOOKPLACEDMOSTLYLARGECOALFIREDPOWERSTATIONSASKNOWNFROMENGLANDANDGERMANY,BUTALSOLARGEHYDROPOWERSTATIONSINITALY,NORWAYANDSWEDENELECTRICITYSEEMEDTOBECOMEANABUNDANTRESOURCE,AVAILABLENOTONLYFORINDUSTRIALPURPOSESBUTFORTRANSPORTATIONASWELLBYTHEENDOFTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,THEUSAALONEHADANESTIMATED50,000ELECTRICVEHICLESALTOGETHER,ANDTHEYWEREEXPORTINGLARGENUMBERSTOWARTORNEUROPE,MOSTLYCARSFORPRIVATEPASSENGERTRANSPORTATANAUTOMOBILESHOWINNEWYORKIN1918,CARSFROMFOURMAJORELECTRICVEHICLECOMPANIESWEREDEMONSTRATEDANUMBEROFBUYERSFROMMANYEUROPEANCOUNTRIESINCLUDINGNORWAYANDSWEDEN,BUTALSOJAPANANDSOUTHAMERICA,WERETHERETOPLACELARGEORDERSANORWEGIANFORINSTANCEIMMEDIATELYPLACEDANORDERFORONEHUNDREDCARS,READYTOBUYANOTHERFORTYWITHINAFORTNIGHTSEVERALELECTRICTAXISWERESOLDTOJAPANWAKEFIELD,1994WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005EXPECTATIONSWEREHIGH,BUTTHEYWOULDSOONFADETHEELECTRICVEHICLESLOSTGROUNDTOTHEGASOLINEANDDIESELICEVEHICLESSOMECOMPANIESWERESTILLPRODUCINGVARIOUSMODELSTHROUGHOUTTHE1920SHOWEVER,SALESWERERELATIVELYLOW,ANDWITHTHESTOCKMARKETCRASHIN1929ANDTHEINTERNATIONALECONOMICDEPRESSION,MOSTOFTHECOMPANIESLEFTWENTBANKRUPTINTHEUSA,ELECTRICCARPRODUCTIONDIDNOTRESUMEAGAINBEFORETHESECONDWORLDWARAGAINTHEREWASAWARTIMEPEAK,CAUSEDBYGASOLINESHORTAGEANDTHEPRIORITYGIVENTOWARFRONTUSEOFBOTHGASOLINEANDDIESELASIMILARPEAKWASEXPERIENCEDINMOSTEUROPEANCOUNTRIES,ANDINJAPAN,WHERETHEELECTRICCARPRODUCTIONCONTINUEDUNTILTHEEARLY1950SDUETOPROLONGEDGASOLINESHORTAGEGERMANAUTHORITIESINPARTICULARACTIVELYPROMOTEDTHEUSEOFELECTRICVEHICLESBYMAKINGTHEMTAXEXEMPT,EMPHASISINGTHEFACTTHATTHISBYFARISANEWMEASUREDURINGWARTIMETHEYHADABOUT30,000ELECTRICVEHICLESRUNNING,FORINSTANCEFORPOSTALSERVICEELECTRICVEHICLESWERETHUSSEENONTHEROADSINQUITESIGNIFICANTNUMBERS,BUTTHISTIMETOALARGEREXTENTTOGETHERWITHICEVEHICLESAPPLYINGVARIOUSTYPESOFALTERNATIVEFUELSFROMLOCALRENEWABLERESOURCES,NOTABLYBIOALCOHOLSANDBIODIESELSANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005WITHINTHISWARTIMECONTEXT,GREATBRITAINHASASOMEWHATDIFFERENTSTORYITISBASICALLYTHESTORYOFTHEELECTRICMILKVANS,THEMOSTLONGLIVEDFLEETOFELECTRICVEHICLESTHEWORLDHASEVERSEEN,AFLEETTHATISSTILLOPERATINGINTHE1950S,THEFLEETGREWTOATOTALOFABOUT30,000,ANUMBERKEPTFAIRLYSTABLEINTHEDECADESTOCOMEITWASANIDEALFLEETFORELECTRICDRIVINGTHEVANSWERENOISELESSWHENDELIVERINGMILKEARLYINTHEMORNING,ANDTHEYCOULDBEPARKEDINCOMMONGARAGESFORRECHARGINGDURINGTHENIGHTWESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005ACTUALLY,THEBRITISHSTARTEDTHEIRRENAISSANCEOFTHEELECTRICVEHICLEWELLBEFORETHEWARBROKEOUT,INTHEMID1930S,MAINLYDUETOTHEAVAILABILITYOFLARGEAMOUNTSOFCHEAPELECTRICITYBY1940THEYHADMORETHAN6000ELECTRICVANSRUNNING,MOSTLYUSEDFORMILKANDBREADDELIVERIESTOENHANCETHEUSEOFELECTRICVEHICLESFURTHER,BRITISHAUTHORITIESHADDURINGTHEWARMADESTRONGMARKETINGCAMPAIGNS,VERYSIMILARTOTHEADVERTISINGCAMPAIGNSSHOWNSOMETHIRTYYEARSEARLIERALLTHEADVANTAGESOFELECTRICDRIVINGWERESTARKLYEMPHASISEDTHEYHADALONGLIFEANDWOULDHELPTOCONSERVENATURALRESOURCESTHEYWERESIMPLEANDCHEAPTOOPERATETHEYREQUIREDLESSMAINTENANCE,ANDHILLSWERENOTAPROBLEMASTHEYMADERECHARGINGPOSSIBLEWHENDRIVINGDOWNHILLTHEBRITISHWERECERTAINLYSTRIVINGTOCOMPETEWITHTHEGERMANSINPROMOTINGELECTRICDRIVINGWHENITCAMETOLONGLIFEITWAS,HOWEVER,NOTASUCCESSSETTINGASIDETHEMILKVANSTORY,THEPRODUCTIONANDUSEOFELECTRICCARSWOULDMOREORLESSCOMPLETELYFADEOUTAGAINDURINGTHEFIRSTPOSTWARYEARSANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005INJAPAN,THEPOSTWARPERIODWASOFCOURSERATHERPROBLEMATICWITHSEVERESHORTAGESANDRATIONINGOFGASOLINETHISINITIATEDTHEPRODUCTIONOFANELECTRICCARDTAMAELECTRICPOWERCARDWHICHWOULDBECOMEQUITEPOPULARITHADANIMPRESSIVERANGEOFABOUT150KMANDADRIVINGSPEEDOFALMOST60KM/HBUTWHENGASOLINEBECAMEREADILYAVAILABLEIN1952,THEPRODUCTIONCOMPANYTURNEDTOICECARSFROMTHISPERIOD,WEALSOKNOWOFSEVERALHYBRIDGASOLINEEELECTRICCARS,BOTHINFRANCEANDTHEUSAINTHECASEOFTHEUSA,EVENAHYBRIDSPORTSCARWASPRODUCED,BUTONLYFORAFEWYEARSWAKEFIELD,19944FROMSILENTSPRINGTOSILENTCARSINTHE1960S,AQUITENEWDEBATETURNEDUPRACHELCARSON1963PUBLISHEDHERBOOKSILENTSPRINGIN1962THISBOOKISBYMANYCONSIDEREDTOREPRESENTTHEREALADVENTOFTHEMODERNENVIRONMENTALDEBATE,ASWEHAVEEXPERIENCEDITSINCETHENCARSONFOCUSEDONENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTIONPROBLEMS,MOSTLYCAUSEDBYPESTICIDECHEMICALSUSEDINAGRICULTUREBUTINPARALLEL,ASEPARATEDEBATETOOKPLACEONAIRPOLLUTIONPROBLEMSINLARGERCITIESITCOMPRISEDISSUESSUCHASLEADPOLLUTION,EMISSIONSOFFINEPARTICULATES,CARBONMONOXIDEANDNITROGENOXIDES,ANDSMOGCREATIONTHESEWERETHEYEARSWHENLEADWASSTILLANADDITIVEINALLGASOLINE,ANDWHENTHEREWERENO65KGH?YER/UTILITIESPOLICY16200863E71

簡介：3700英文單詞，英文單詞，20000英文字符，中文英文字符，中文6500字出處出處H?YERKGTHEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSJUTILITIESPOLICY,2008,1626371THEHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSINTRANSPORTATIONTHECASEOFELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSKARLGEORGH?YERABSTRACTTHEARTICLEDESCRIBESANDPRESENTSACRITICALANALYSISOFTHELONGHISTORYOFALTERNATIVEFUELSANDPROPULSIONTECHNOLOGIES,PARTICULARLYINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONSCASESAREELECTRICANDHYBRIDCARSTHETERM‘‘CRITICALANALYSIS”REFERSTOTHEANALYSISOFTHEVARIOUSALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIESINRELATIONTOTHEIRSOCIETALCONTEXTSINPARTICULAR,THESEARETHEVARYINGCONTEXTSOFENERGYSECURITY,ENERGYPOLICY,ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS,SUSTAINABILITY,ANDALSOTHELATERMOREEXPLICITCLIMATECHANGECONTEXTTHISAPPROACHGIVESSOMEKNOWLEDGEWITHRELEVANCETOTHECURRENTDISCUSSIONSONIMPLEMENTATIONISSUESTHEWORKISFIRSTOFALLFOUNDEDONTHEKNOWLEDGEFIELDOF‘‘SOCIALSTUDIESOFTECHNOLOGICALSYSTEMS”KEYWORDSALTERNATIVEFUELSHISTORYELECTRICCARSHYBRIDCARS1ELECTRICCARSTHEEARLYINNOVATORSTHEHISTORYOFELECTRICCARSISCLOSELYRELATEDTOTHEHISTORYOFBATTERIESWAKEFIELD,1994SPERLING,1995WESTBROOK,2001ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THENAMESOFALLTHEEARLYINNOVATORSARESTILLUSEDTODAYIN1800,THEITALIANALESSANDROVOLTADEMONSTRATEDTHATELECTRICENERGYCOULDBESTOREDCHEMICALLYHEHIMSELFWASINSPIREDBYSOMEEARLIEREXPERIMENTSMADEBYHISCOUNTRYMANLUIGIGALVANIGALVANIWASAPROFESSORINMEDICINE,WHOCARRIEDOUTSOMERATHERCRUELEXPERIMENTSINWHICHHEOBSERVEDTHETWITCHINGOFAFROG5SLEGWHENSUBJECTINGITTOWHATWOULDLATERBEKNOWNASELECTRICCURRENTIN1821,THEBRITONMICHAELFARRADAYDEMONSTRATEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFTHEELECTRICMOTORORGENERATORWHILEAPPLYINGVOLTA5SCHEMICALPILEASACOMPONENTOFHISEXPERIMENTSLATER,IN1831,FARRADAYSHOWEDTHEPRINCIPLESOFELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTIONWITHTHECLOSERELATIONBETWEENELECTRICCURRENTSANDMAGNETISM,THEREBYLAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORTHEELECTRICMOTORSANDGENERATORSEXPLICITLYREQUIREDFORELECTRICCARSTHEFIRSTEXPERIMENTALLIGHTWEIGHTELECTRICVEHICLESTHUSAPPEAREDBOTHINTHEUSA,UKANDTHENETHERLANDSINTHEMID1830SEXTENSIVEDEVELOPMENTSINELECTROCHEMISTRYTOOKPLACEINTHESEEARLYYEARSIN1859,THEBELGIANGASTONPLANTEMADEAPATHBREAKINGDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEFIRSTLEADACIDBATTERYCELLTHISIMPLIEDTHEINVENTIONOFTHELEADACIDBATTERYSTILLUSEDASASTARTERBATTERYINALLINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINEICECARSANDALSOASAPOWERBATTERYINMOSTELECTRICCARSOTHERCHEMICALCELLBATTERIESWEREFURTHERDEVELOPEDINTHESEYEARS,FORINSTANCETHEIRONZINCBATTERYANDONLYAFEWYEARSLATER,IN1861,ANOTHERITALIAN,ANTONIOPACINOTTI,INVENTEDTHE“RING”DIRECTCURRENTMOTORTHEFIRSTELECTRICVEHICLEATRICYCLEAPPLYINGTHEPLANTELEADBATTERYASAPOWERSOURCEWASDEMONSTRATEDINFRANCEBYAMRTROUVEIN1881INTHESEINETHESAMEYEAR,HEACTUALLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTELECTRICBOATWITHASIMILARPOWERSOURCEDURINGTHESEYEARS,THEEARLY1880S,OTHERSIMILARELECTRICTRICYCLESWITHLEADBATTERIESWEREALSODEMONSTRATEDINTHEUSAANDUKINTHISCONTEXT,ITISWORTHREMEMBERINGTHATTHEGERMANBENZDEMONSTRATEDTHEFIRSTICEVEHICLEIN1885LATERONTHOMASEDISONJOINEDFORCES,ASHESAWGREATOPPORTUNITIESFORELECTRICCARSHECARSOVERLONGERDISTANCES,NOTABLYINSEVERALEARLYCARRACESWHERETHEYCOMPETEDWITHICEANDSTEAMENGINECARSBOTHFORREACHANDSPEEDRECORDSANOTHERSOMEWHATLATERINVENTIONFORTHESAMEPURPOSEWASAFASTBATTERYSWAPPINGSYSTEM,WITHBATTERIESONROLLERSTHATALLOWEDTHECAROWNERSTOEASILYROLLOUTTHEDISCHARGEDBATTERIESANDROLLINTHENEWCHARGEDONESANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005BESIDESINTENSIVEEFFORTSTODEVELOPNEWBATTERYTYPESANDINVENTIVESYSTEMSFORFASTBATTERYEXCHANGEANDRECHARGING,TWOOTHERTECHNOLOGIESWEREDEVELOPEDAROUND1900WHICHAIMEDATENHANCINGTHEREACHOFTHEELECTRICCARFIRSTLY,THEREWASTHEPRINCIPLEOFREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTHISWASDEMONSTRATEDINPARISIN1887,UTILISINGTHEABILITYOFTHEELECTRICDRIVEMOTORTOACTASAGENERATORCHARGINGTHEBATTERYWHENOVERDRIVENMECHANICALLYBYTHEVEHICLEWHEELSINTHISWAY,DRIVINGDOWNHILLGIVESEXTRAPOWERBACKTOTHEBATTERYTHERECHARGINGLOADSTHEDRIVEMOTORASAGENERATORENOUGHBOTHTOACHIEVETHENECESSARYBRAKINGEFFECTANDTOINCREASETHEENERGYSTOREDINTHEBATTERYEARLYESTIMATESSHOWEDTHATONEWOULDEXPECTINCREASESINCARRANGESUPTO40,JUSTASTHEESTIMATESWOULDBESOMEHUNDREDYEARSLATERSUCHREGENERATIVEBRAKINGBECAMESTANDARDEQUIPMENTINMANYOFTHEMODELSALREADYSOLDINTHEEARLYYEARSOFTHE18THCENTURYWAKEFIELD,1994WESTBROOK,2001THESECONDIMPORTANTTECHNOLOGYDEVELOPEDTOINCREASETHELIMITEDREACHOFTHEBATTERYCARSWASTHEHYBRID,SOMUCHMOREINFOCUSATTHATPOINTTHANAHUNDREDYEARSLATERTHENOTABLECARDEVELOPERFERDINANDPORSCHEWASONEOFTHEFIRSTINVENTORSINTHISFIELDHISGASOLINEELECTRICCARWASSHOWNATTHEPARISEXPOSITIONIN1900THESEEARLYHYBRIDSALSOINCLUDEDREGENERATIVEBRAKINGTECHNOLOGIESSUCHAGASOLINEELECTRICHYBRIDCARWASDEMONSTRATEDASEARLYASTHETHIRDANNUALAUTOMOBILEANDCYCLESHOWINPARISIN1901THEAMERICANELECTRICVEHICLECOINCOLUMBIAANNOUNCEDIN1902INANADVERTISEMENTTHESALEOFITSELECTRICGASOLINEHYBRID,‘‘TOAFFORDTHEMAXIMUMOFSAFETY,RELIABILITY,COMFORTANDLUXURYWRITEFORCATALOGUEOFSEVENTEENDIFFERENTCOLUMBIAMODELS’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005THEHYBRIDSWERECLAIMEDTOCOMBINETHEBESTOFTWOTECHNOLOGIESNOISELESSWHENDRIVINGINCITYAREASANDWITHNOLIMITSTOTHEREACHOFTHECAROUTSIDETHECITIESTHEAMERICANJOURNALTHEAUTOMOBILESTATEDINASPECIALISSUEIN1905‘‘ITCERTAINLYSEEMSTHATTHEREISABIGFUTUREBEFORETHEPETROLELECTRICCAR’’ANDERSONANDANDERSON,2005MOSTLYDUETOCOSTPROBLEMS,THEHYBRIDCONCEPTDID,HOWEVER,MOREORLESSDISAPPEARDURINGTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,NEVERTOBELOOKEDSERIOUSLYATAGAINBEFORETHEEARLY1970SWAKEFIELD,19987TOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITYWITHELECTRICDRIVINGBYTHEEARLY1980S,ELECTRICCARSWOULDCOMEINTOFOCUSAGAINULVONAS,1983MADERANDBEVILACQUA,1989WAKEFIELD,1994THEPROBLEMSOFAIRPOLLUTIONINLARGERCITIESWEREONCEAGAINHIGHLIGHTEDANDBYTHEENDOFTHEDECADE,IN1990,CALIFORNIAINTRODUCEDTHEIRFIRSTZEROEMISSIONREGULATIONS,WHICHINPARTICULARSPARKEDNEWINITIATIVESINDEVELOPINGELECTRICVEHICLESDURINGTHE1990SZEROEMISSIONVEHICLESBECAMEANEWTERMAPPLIEDINTHISCONTEXT,FOCUSSHALL,HOWEVER,BEONQUITEANOTHERDISCOURSETHESUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTDISCOURSESINCETHELATE1980S,WEHAVEEXPERIENCEDANEWANDINTENSIFIEDFOCUSONTHENEEDTODEVELOPALTERNATIVEENERGYRESOURCESANDTECHNOLOGIESINTHETRANSPORTSECTORNOTONLYHASTHISFOCUSBECOMEANINTEGRALPARTOFTHECURRENTENVIRONMENTALANDALTERNATIVEENERGYDISCOURSE,ITHASEVENCOMETODOMINATETHISDISCOURSETHETERMISNOLONGERSOFTENERGYPATHS,BUTSUSTAINABLEENERGYSYSTEMS,WITHENERGYFORMOBILITYPURPOSESASACRUCIALPARTISSUESRELATEDTODEVELOPMENTOFALTERNATIVEENERGYINTHETRANSPORTSECTORHAVETHUSBEENINTEGRATEDINTOTHEMUCHWIDERDISCOURSEONSUSTAINABLE

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YBRIDCONCEPTDID,HOWEVER,MOREORLESSDISAPPEARDURINGTHEFIRSTWORLDWAR,NEVERTOBELOOKEDSERIOUSLYATAGAINBEFORETHEEARLY1970SWAKEFIELD,19987TOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITYWITHELECTRICDRIVINGBYTHEEARLY1980S,ELECTRICCARSWOULDCOMEINTOFOCUSAGAINULVONAS,1983MADERANDBEVILACQUA,1989WAKEFIELD,1994THEPROBLEMSOFAIRPOLLUTIONINLARGERCITIESWEREONCEAGAINHIGHLIGHTEDANDBYTHEENDOFTHEDECADE,IN1990,CALIFORNIAINTRODUCEDTHEIRFIRSTZEROEMISSIONREGULATIONS,WHICHINPARTICULARSPARKEDNEWINITIATIVESINDEVELOPINGELECTRICVEHICLESDURINGTHE1990SZEROEMISSIONVEHICLESBECAMEANEWTERMAPPLIEDINTHISCONTEXT,FOCUSSHALL,HOWEVER,BEONQUITEANOTHERDISCOURSETHESUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTDISCOURSESINCETHELATE1980S,WEHAVEEXPERIENCEDANEWANDINTENSIFIEDFOCUSONTHENEEDTODEVELOPALTERNATIVEENERGYRESOURCESANDTECHNOLOGIESINTHETRANSPORTSECTORNOTONLYHASTHISFOCUSBECOMEANINTEGRALPARTOFTHECURRENTENVIRONMENTALANDALTERNATIVEENERGYDISCOURSE,ITHASEVENCOMETODOMINATETHISDISCOURSETHETERMISNOLONGERSOFTENERGYPATHS,BUTSUSTAINABLEENERGYSYSTEMS,WITHENERGYFORMOBILITYPURPOSESASACRUCIALPARTISSUESRELATEDTODEVELOPMENTOFALTERNATIVEENERGYINTHETRANSPORTSECTORHAVETHUSBEENINTEGRATEDINTOTHEMUCHWIDERDISCOURSEONSUSTAINABLE